The quantity and severity of punishments were reduced, the prison system was improved, and the first attempts were made to study the psychology of crime and to distinguish between classes of criminals. Modern punishment theories date from the 18th century, when the humanitarian movement in Europe emphasized the dignity of the individual, as well as his rationality and responsibility. Various theories of punishment have been developed, each of which attempts to justify the practice in some form and to state its proper objectives. Punishment has been a subject of debate among philosophers, political leaders, and lawyers for centuries. For additional general discussion, see torture. For discussion of specific forms of punishment, see capital punishment, flogging, exile and banishment, and drawing and quartering. This article deals with theories and objectives of punishment and examines general systems of punishment in various countries and regions. Under such a system, the state is viewed as the entity wronged by the crime, and the exaction of punishment by individuals acting on their own behalf (as in cases of lynching) is illegal. Eventually punishment by individuals came under the control of the community later, with the development of codes of law, the state took over the punitive function for the maintenance of public order. Gradually there arose the idea of proportionate punishment, such as was reflected in the biblical dictum “an eye for an eye” ( see talion). In quantity and quality such punishment bore no special relation to the character or gravity of the offense. In some premodern societies, punishment was largely vindictive or retributive, and its prosecution was left to the individuals wronged (or to their families). Deferred punishments consist of penalties that are imposed only if an offense is repeated within a specified time. Punishment may take forms ranging from capital punishment, flogging, forced labour, and mutilation of the body to imprisonment and fines. Punishment, the infliction of some kind of pain or loss upon a person for a misdeed (i.e., the transgression of a law or command). SpaceNext50 Britannica presents SpaceNext50, From the race to the Moon to space stewardship, we explore a wide range of subjects that feed our curiosity about space!.Learn about the major environmental problems facing our planet and what can be done about them! Saving Earth Britannica Presents Earth’s To-Do List for the 21st Century.Britannica Beyond We’ve created a new place where questions are at the center of learning.100 Women Britannica celebrates the centennial of the Nineteenth Amendment, highlighting suffragists and history-making politicians. COVID-19 Portal While this global health crisis continues to evolve, it can be useful to look to past pandemics to better understand how to respond today. Student Portal Britannica is the ultimate student resource for key school subjects like history, government, literature, and more.Demystified Videos In Demystified, Britannica has all the answers to your burning questions.This Time in History In these videos, find out what happened this month (or any month!) in history.#WTFact Videos In #WTFact Britannica shares some of the most bizarre facts we can find.Britannica Classics Check out these retro videos from Encyclopedia Britannica’s archives.Britannica Explains In these videos, Britannica explains a variety of topics and answers frequently asked questions.
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